While trees can cool some cities significantly during the day, new research shows that tree canopies can also trap heat and raise temperatures at night. The study aims to help urban planners choose the best combinations of trees and planting locations to combat urban heat stress.
Temperatures in cities are rising across the globe and urban heat stress is already a major problem causing illness, death, a surge in energy use to cool buildings down, heat-related social inequality issues and problems with urban infrastructure.
Some cities have already started implementing mitigation strategies, with tree planting prominent among them. But a University of Cambridge-led study now warns that planting the wrong species or the wrong combination of trees in suboptimal locations or arrangements can limit their benefits.
The study, published today in Communications Earth & Environment found that urban trees can lower pedestrian-level air temperature by up to 12°C. Its authors found that the introduction of trees reduced peak monthly temperatures to below 26°C in 83% of the cities studied, meeting the ‘thermal comfort threshold’. However, they also found that this cooling ability varies significantly around the world and is influenced by tree species traits, urban layout and climate conditions.
“Our study busts the myth that trees are the ultimate panacea for overheating cities across the globe,” said Dr Ronita Bardhan, Associate Professor of Sustainable Built Environment at the University of Cambridge.
“Trees have a crucial role to play in cooling cities down but we need to plant them much more strategically to maximise the benefits which they can provide.”
Previous research on the cooling effects of urban trees has focused on specific climates or regions, and considered case studies in a fragmented way, leaving major gaps in our knowledge about unique tree cooling mechanisms and how these interact with diverse urban features.
To overcome this, the authors of this study analysed the findings of 182 studies — concerning 17 climates in 110 global cities or regions — published between 2010 and 2023, offering the first comprehensive global assessment of urban tree cooling.
During the day, trees cool cities in three ways: by blocking solar radiation; through evaporation of water via pores in their leaves; and by foliage aerodynamically changing airflow. At night, however, tree canopies can trap longwave radiation from the ground surface, due to aerodynamic resistance and ‘stomatal closure’ — the closing of microscopic pores on the surface of leaves partly in response to heat and drought stress.
Variation by climate type
The study found that urban trees generally cool cities more in hot and dry climates, and less in hot humid climates.
In the ‘tropical wet and dry or savanna’ climate, trees can cool cities by as much as 12 °C, as recorded in Nigeria. However, it was in this same climate that trees also warmed cities most at night, by up to 0.8°C.
Trees performed well in arid climates, cooling cities by just over 9°C and warming them at night by 0.4 °C.
In tropical rainforest climates, where humidity is higher, the daytime cooling effect dropped to approximately 2°C while the nighttime heating effect was 0.8 °C.
In temperate climates, trees can cool cities by up to 6°C and warm them by 1.5°C.
Using trees more strategically
The study points out that cities which have more open urban layouts are more likely to feature a mix of evergreen and deciduous trees of varying sizes. This, the researchers found, tends to result in greater cooling in temperate, continental and tropical climates.
The combined use of trees in these climates generally results in 0.5 °C more cooling than in cities where only deciduous or evergreen trees feature. This is because mixed trees can balance seasonal shading and sunlight, providing three-dimensional cooling at various heights.
In arid climates, however, the researchers found that evergreen species dominate and cool more effectively in the specific context of compact urban layouts such as Cairo in Egypt, or Dubai in UAE.
In general, trees cooled more effectively in open and low-rise cities in dry climates. In open urban layouts, cooling can be improved by about 0.4 °C because their larger green spaces allow for more and larger tree canopies and a greater mix of tree species.
“Our study provides context-specific greening guidelines for urban planners to more effectively harness tree cooling in the face of global warming,” Dr Ronita Bardhan said.
“Our results emphasize that urban planners not only need to give cities more green spaces, they need to plant the right mix of trees in optimal positions to maximize cooling benefits.”
“Urban planners should plan for future warmer climates by choosing resilient species which will continue to thrive and maintain cooling benefits,” said Dr Bardhan, a Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge.
Matching trees to urban forms
The study goes further, arguing that species selection and placement needs to be compatible with urban forms. The orientation of the ‘street canyon’, local climate zones, aspect ratio, visible sky ratio and other urban features that influence the effects of trees all need to be carefully considered.
Although a higher degree of tree canopy cover in street canyons generally results in more cooling effects, excessively high cover may trap heat at the pedestrian level, especially in compact urban zones in high temperature climates. In such locations, narrow species and sparse planting strategies are recommended.
The researchers emphasise that we cannot rely entirely on trees to cool cities, and that solutions such as solar shading and reflective materials will continue to play an important role.
The researchers have developed an interactive database and map to enable users to estimate the cooling efficacy of strategies based on data from cities with similar climates and urban structures.
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